Mountain and wilderness hazards, risk mitigation and safety procedures

Acute mountain sickness (AMS)

This is caused by increasing one's elevation too quickly for the body to adjust to the reduced oxygen and changes in air pressure. AMS affects everyone differently, irrespective of age, gender, or fitness level, and the typical symptoms include headache, shortness of breath, nausea, dizziness, fatigue, and loss of appetite. In severe cases, fluid can build up within the lungs, brain or both, which can be fatal. AMS is most common when above altitudes of 2500m. 

Mitigation of risk: 

- Avoid alcohol and caffeine one week before starting your trek.

- Ensure you are well-rested and in good shape before your tour to reduce the effects of AMS. 

Ascend slowly. However fit you are, slow and steady is the best approach to allow your body ample time to acclimatise to higher altitudes. 

- Acclimatisation before exposure, i.e. several days above 2000m before ascending.

- Rehydrate with water often and limit dehydrating drinks. Ideally, you should drink between 4 and 6 litres of water per day whilst hiking at altitude, and consider replenishing electrolyte levels with electrolyte supplements. 

- Consult your doctor before travelling to discuss your health circumstances, particularly if you have a history of heart or lung problems.

- Listen to your body and know your limits.

Action to treat AMS:

- If you start to have symptoms of AMS, you must stop ascending, take a break, and rehydrate. If symptoms persist not long after taking these steps, descend to a lower altitude as rapidly and safely as possible. 

- Mild symptoms of AMS can generally be treated with rest, rehydrating fluids and painkillers, such as paracetamol or ibuprofen, or certain medicines specifically to relieve symptoms of AMS.

- Once at lower altitudes, symptoms of AMS should subside within a day or so. 

Emergency action:

Although uncommon below altitudes of 3000m, AMS can progress into High Altitude Cerebral Oedema (HACE) symptoms. HACE is a medical emergency, when the brain starts to swell, and symptoms are recognisable with altered behaviour, difficulty speaking, hallucinations and loss of muscular coordination. AMS may also progress into High-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE), a dangerous medical condition due to a fluid build-up in the lungs, with sufferers showing associated symptoms of coughing, breathlessness and mobility issues.

In such cases, you should:

- Immediately descend to a lower altitude.

- Seek medical assistance and receive oxygen treatment

- Use medications to reduce brain swelling, such as dexamethasone or acetazolamide. Consult your doctor before your tour to discuss such medications.

Heat cramping is likely to occur in hot environments once the body experiences an inadequate or unbalanced replacement of fluids and electrolytes. They are the mildest form of heat-related illnesses, and symptoms include heavy sweating, fatigue, thirst, muscle spasms, and cramps. They are your body telling you that you need to rest and slow down.

Mitigation of risk: 

- Stay on top of your electrolytes and salt levels, replenishing with electrolyte supplements and salt tablets.

- Rehydrate with water well before you start hiking that day. Then, adopt the 'little but often' approach for your water intake. Drink water before feeling thirsty (200ml roughly every 20 minutes), and avoid large gulps.

- Avoid hiking at the hottest time of day, between noon - 3pm, and start your hike early in the morning.

- Wear loose, lightweight, breathable clothing, and avoid dark colours that absorb the sun's rays. Consider wetting a lightweight cloth and placing it on your neck and/or head.

- Take enough rest breaks to retain your energy at a reasonable level. 

- Check the localised weather forecast before starting your hike.

Immediate action to treat heat cramps:

- Find shade, remove excess clothing and take a break to cool down.

- Gently massage the cramping muscle and perform some gentle stretching

- Increase intake of fluids and electrolytes through sports drinks (e.g. Gatorade)

- Eat salty snacks

- If the cramps persist for over an hour, seek medical treatment.

Heat exhaustion

(stage two of heat-related illness)

Heat exhaustion can progress following untreated heat cramps or occur independently. It is your body's response to the loss of water and salts, is usually accompanied by dehydration, and happens after prolonged exposure to the sun and hot environments. The symptoms of heat exhaustion include pale skin, headache, nausea, vomiting, dizziness, fainting, weakness, irritability, thirst, heavy sweating, muscle cramps, and decreased urine output.

Mitigation of risk:

In addition to the preventative measures above for heat cramps, the following also helps minimise the risks of heat exhaustion:

- Apply and reapply sunblock to exposed skin. Sunburn affects your body's ability to cool itself.

- Gradually acclimatise yourself to hot environments as your hike approaches. If you are not used to hot weather, you are more susceptible to heat-related illnesses.

- Be in your best shape possible. Excess weight can affect your body’s ability to regulate its temperature.

- Consult your doctor about the impact of hot weather concerning any long-term health conditions or medications.

- Wear clothing made of natural fibres and a wide-brimmed hat. Avoid scratchy clothing that can irritate the skin. Invest in good-quality hiking socks.

Immediate action to treat heat exhaustion:

- Find shade, stop any activity, remove excess clothing and bags, and take a break to cool down. Lie down and raise your feet slightly.

- Pour water on your head and face. Wet a cloth and place it around your neck and under your armpits.

- Increase intake of fluids and electrolytes through sports drinks (e.g. Gatorade).

Ideally, sufferers of heat exhaustion should not return to activity within 24-48 hrs. Medical clearance is recommended to rule out other conditions.

Heat stroke

(stage three of heat-related illness)

When heat exhaustion goes untreated, the body loses the ability to regulate the temperature in the body and progresses to heat stroke. Heat stroke is the most dangerous form of heat-related illness and requires immediate medical attention. Whereas symptoms of heat exhaustion are more recognisable, the mental state of heat stroke sufferers may make it harder for them to spot and take action. The main symptoms to look for with heat stroke are an increased heart rate/rapid pulse, dehydration, flushed skin (skin may feel dry or slightly moist), confusion and disorientation, and altered behaviour. 

Mitigation of risk:

Heat stroke results from untreated heat exhaustion, so mitigation measures are reflected in the actions listed to treat heat exhaustion. 

Paying close attention to your body, familiarising yourself with effective hydration techniques, and recognizing dehydration symptoms are paramount to staying safe when hiking in hot weather. Children and older adults are more susceptible to dehydration, and hiking at altitude exacerbates these risks.

Heat stroke and sunstroke are often classed together, and although the symptoms can be the same, the cause of sunstroke is from too much sun exposure, not internal heat. Wearing wide-brimmed hats and limiting one's time in the sun are the best preventative measures to avoid sunstroke. 

Immediate action to treat heat stroke:

- As with heat exhaustion, the primary goal is to cool your body. Find shade, stop any activity, remove excess clothing and bags, and take a break to cool down. Lie down and raise your feet slightly.

- Immerse oneself safely in cold water (rivers, streams, waterfalls) or, if unavailable, apply cool water or wet cloths to the skin. Beware of cold water shock if immersing in very cold water.

- Apply cool packs to neck, armpits, and groin.

- Fan oneself continuously. 

- Replenish lost fluids and electrolytes

- Remove gear and clothing, especially hats, shoes and socks, and backpacks.

- If a person loses consciousness while you are waiting for help, put them in the recovery position. Perform CPR if necessary.

- Contact the local emergency services. 

While hypothermia is a greater risk in winter, it can also become a
real risk in summer, especially under wet conditions. The occurrence of hypothermia is not only reserved for sub-zero temperatures.

There are different degrees of hypothermia to identify between mild, moderate and severe hypothermia.

Common signs and symptoms of mild hypothermia are shivering, increased heart rate, inability to perform complex tasks (walking and talking still OK), lethargy, and pale skin colour.

Common signs and symptoms of moderate hypothermia are a slowed heart and breathing rate, uncontrollable shivering, reduced consciousness, and slurring of speech. 

Common signs and symptoms of severe hypothermia are ceasing to shiver, loss of consciousness, complete muscle stiffness, pupil dilation, respiratory failure, and hard-to-detect pulse rate. 

Mitigation of risk:

- It is very important to avoid wearing cotton clothing (which takes too long to dry) and to bring good quality rain gear and a pack cover. Rain can last for hours in mountainous terrain, so use your rain gear as soon as it starts raining to prevent yourself from getting wet.

- Have a dry change of clothes and adequate layers to stay safe in cold conditions.

- Pick sheltered rest stops to build body warmth. Eat nutritious snacks and hydrate at each stop, but keep break times short.

- Avoid substances that can contribute to hypothermia, such as alcohol and certain medications.

- Check the localised weather forecast before starting your hike.

Immediate action in the event of moderate and severe hypothermia:

- Contact the local emergency services.

- Move to a warm, dry location if possible, protected from the elements

- Remove wet clothing

- Drink warm fluids

- Insulate oneself as best as possible

- Apply warm compresses to the neck, chest or groin.

Falls are the main cause of injury whilst hiking. In many cases, they do not result in an emergency, but some falls can be serious or life-threatening.

Mitigation of risk:

- Take regular breaks and replenish fluid levels. Exhaustion and dehydration impair balance and judgment, and falls are more likely to occur when tired.

- Keep to the marked tracks and avoid shortcuts. Terrain away from the trail can quickly become unfamiliar, challenging, or treacherous. One can easily become disorientated off the trail and lose one's concentration. Take extra care even when briefly leaving the main trail to let other hikers pass.
- Have your vision checked before your hike, and travel with the necessary eye correction solutions appropriate for all weather conditions.

- Hike with the correct equipment and a first aid kit, but do not overload your daypack. Dress accordingly and choose proper footwear with ankle support and good treads for maximum grip. Consider hiking poles to boost your overall balance.  

- Start your hike early to maximise the time for optimum vision during daylight. 

- Prepare yourself physically for the hike, and do not overextend yourself at too fast a pace. Pushing yourself too much can lead to exhaustion and less surefootedness. 

- Be vigilant of changes in the terrain and protruding features that can cause stumbling. 

- Fully access water crossings before crossing, and consider turning around. In some cases, it may be safer to cross away water from the main trail. Keep your boots on, and take small, considered steps. 

- Prepare for the hike by familiarising yourself with maps, route instructions, and elevation guides and checking the localised weather forecast.

Immediate actions to take in the event of a trip or fall:

Sprains:

- Rest and take the weight off the injury area. Use walking poles to assist in reducing weight on the injury whilst walking. 

- Place ice packs on the affected area (if available). Alternatives to ice packs could be nearby snow, submerging the area in a cold stream or river, or wetting unneeded clothing.

- Manage the pain with medication.

- Apply compression with an elastic bandage or clothing, taking care not to prevent circulation entirely. 

- Elevate the injured area above heart height.

Cuts and scrapes:

- If a small cut, clean the area with water, and gently apply a sterile gauze pad to the area to stop the bleeding. Then, disinfect the wound with antiseptic wipes or cream, and apply a bandage. Continue care for the wound, replacing dressings regularly.

- For larger cuts, use firm hand pressure and gauze (or cleanest clothes) to stanch the bleeding. Clean and dress the wound. Larger cuts might need a tourniquet to control bleeding. Use a belt or spare clothing tied tightly above the wound. Lift the wounded area above heart level if possible. Seek medical attention as soon as possible. 

Fractures and broken bones:

- Stop any bleeding, applying pressure to the wound

- Splint the affected area if possible, and protect a wounded body part from further damage

- Apply cold compression with an icepack or alternative water sources.

- Elevate the affected injury

- Manage the pain with medication, and keep warm.

- Observe the injured person for signs of shock and follow DRSABCD procedures.

- Contact the local emergency services. 

Support and rescue are unlikely to be immediately available in an emergency when hiking in the wilderness. Once you are away from roads and no longer where an ambulance can easily get to, Mountain Rescue is the service needed. Due to limited access, inclement weather or poor visibility, it may take several hours or overnight before the rescue team can reach you. 

Mitigation of risk:

- Take a wilderness first aid course or at least become CPR/First aid certified. 

- Hike with a first aid kit

- Carry a fully charged phone with a backup battery.

- Hike with the appropriate clothing and equipment 

- Check the localised weather before your hike

- Travel with someone

- Ensure you have comprehensive mountain rescue cover within your travel insurance policy. 

Immediate action in the event of delayed rescue:

- Take the necessary measures to stay warm, safe, and visible. 

- Perform all necessary first aid, replenish fluids and have a snack. 

- Contact the local emergency services. 

Getting lost or disoriented can be dangerous in the wilderness, and making poor decisions can escalate the situation quickly. It can also be a frightening experience, and this fear can impair your judgment. There is also a heightened risk of accidents and injury when lost. In most cases, hikers become lost due to a lack of experience, preparedness, or navigational support. 

Mitigation of risk: 

- Travel with a printed map of the area, and study it before setting out on your hike.

- Travel with a compass and GPS assistance, using them in conjunction with a printed map. Verify your position at every junction.

- Be attentive to your surroundings, waymarks, and landmarks.

- Set off early to maximise hiking time in daylight.

- When referring to imagery in route guidance, be mindful that natural environments change throughout the seasons, and vegetation, landslips, and snowfall can alter the appearance of your surroundings.

- Fully charge your phone before your hike, and travel with a spare battery.

- Familiarise yourself with the functions of navigational Apps before hiking.

- Stay on the marked trail.

- Choose moderately trafficked trails if new to hiking.

- Replenish fluids to avoid dehydration. 

Immediate action to take when lost:

- Remain calm and try not to panic. Rest, replenish fluids and have a snack. This will all aid in positive and rational decision-making. 

- Stop where you are and assess your surroundings. Blindly moving on may result in accidents, distance from the trail, and difficulty reaching emergency rescue services. 

- Think back about the steps you took and your surroundings up to this point.

- Observe your navigational materials, your current surroundings, and your recollections of landmarks as you hike to this point. Use your GPS device or compass to identify the direction from where you are currently sitting. 

- Check water levels, the current and approaching weather, and the approximate time until dark. These factors may determine whether you should continue moving from your position. If you do not have a phone signal, consider turning off your phone to conserve battery. 

- Plan your possible options, and choose one of them. If you have recently strayed the trail, retrace your steps. Only proceed with a new route if you have full confidence in yourself or the current conditions are safe. Consider moving to a nearby vantage point to optimise your view of your surroundings. Be mindful that water flows downhill, and walking downhill, especially in forests and mountains, will often get you out. 

- If you are not fully confident in your new route, it is best to stay where you are, contact an emergency rescue, and wait for help. If you are injured, dehydrated, or exhausted, stay where you are and contact the local emergency services.

The natural topography of mountainous terrain significantly affects the weather conditions in the mountains and surrounding areas. Weather conditions in mountainous environments can become more localised, and the weather in one valley may differ greatly from the next. For this reason, one should expect the weather to be more interchangeable and unpredictable whilst hiking in the mountains, and the risk of being caught in a thunderstorm is more likely. Hikers are also at a greater risk of lighting exposure. 

Mitigation of risk:

- Check the localised weather forecast before starting your hike, and plan your hike around this.

- Seek the advice of local hut staff or the local tourist information office for their assessment of the severity of the weather forecast and the timing of any potential thunderstorms.

Start hiking early in the day. Thunderstorms can occur at any time but are more common later in the day when the heat from the ground rises into the cooler air, causing instability.

- Closely monitor the sky and horizon while hiking and listen for thunder. Thunderstorms can form very quickly, especially in the mountains in summer.

- Familiarise yourself with your route, and note where and when you may be hiking along exposed areas, such as plateaus, ridges or summits. 

- Include warm and waterproof clothing in your daysack, even if the sun is shining in the morning. 

- Before you hike, be mentally prepared that you may need to turn back, contrary to waiting for a storm to pass.

Immediate action in the event of a thunderstorm and lightning:

- Put on your rain gear and remove your backpack.

- If you hear thunder it is vital to get down off high ground, away from exposed summits or ridgetops and below the treeline.

- Estimate your distance from the storm by measuring the time between seeing the lightning flash and hearing the thunder. The length of this interval in seconds can be divided by three to give an approximate distance in kilometres. The threat of lightning continues for much longer than many people realise. After the
storms move away, and you stop hearing thunder, wait at least 30 minutes before assuming it is safe. 

- To minimise the chances of a strike you need to become a small, round target. Your best option is to put extra clothing and waterproofs on, seek the lowest point possible and sit on your rucksack with your knees drawn up to your body.

- Ensure that you place items such as poles, ice axes, crampons and climbing hardware well away from you until the storm has passed. 

- If any of your equipment is ‘buzzing,’ move away from it immediately. Another feature is the emission of a blue glow to the buzzing equipment. This is a phenomenon known as St.
Elmo’s fire, and can indicate that a strike is likely to be imminent.

- Sheltering under a rock overhang or in a cave is hazardous because a lightning strike will bridge the gap between the rock above you and the ground below.

- Do not be tempted to shelter underneath a tree for the same reasons as above.

- Move away from fellow travellers; then, if the worst occurs, there will likely be others to help.

- Do not position yourself next to wet or boggy ground; water will conduct electricity. 

Sudden changes in weather in mountainous environments are common, and the chance of snow is greater. During a day's hike, you may significantly increase your elevation and encounter various conditions. Spring is most commonly underestimated for its snow conditions, and it is important to research historical snowfall in the region before travelling. Some of the main hazards of Spring in the mountains are icy trails, ice/rock falls, thin ice, snow melt and rising water levels. and temperature changes. During snowstorms, trails can quickly become hidden, and navigation in poor visibility becomes very difficult and slow.

Mitigation of risk:

- Check the localised weather forecast before your hike

- When adverse snow weather is forecast, stay at the hut or accommodation where you are until visibility improves.

- Check with hut staff or the local tourist information office to check trail conditions for the following day.

- Be mindful that early mornings are generally the coldest part of the day when you are more likely to encounter ice. The snow might become slushy by the afternoon, making waterproof boots extra important. 

- Avoid frozen lakes and rivers, especially during Spring months.  

- Leave plenty of time to complete your hike during warmer daylight hours. Hiking on snow and ice will result in slower progress.

- Stay warm. On a cold-weather hike, wear multiple light, breathable layers of clothing. Pack a waterproof jacket for warmth and wind shelter, gaiters, and accessories to protect your extremities. 

- Read up on avalanche safety, check the avalanche report, take an avalanche safety course and carry the appropriate safety gear. 

- Remember to replenish fluids and carry extra snacks. Hiking in snow requires more energy, and dehydration is just as possible in cold weather.

- Avoid hiking over snow bridges, which form over creeks and other small spaces in the terrain. Snow bridges are most common in Spring when a higher volume of snow melts from rising temperatures. 

- Give trees a wide berth when hiking in snow. The snow under branches will not be as hard-packed, leaving an obscured tree well. 

-  Consider using hiking poles with snow baskets attached for increased balance. Walk flat-footed on ice or hard-packed snow to reduce the chance of slipping. 

- Take spare battery packs for your phone. Battery life depletes faster in cold temperatures.

- Consider packing microspikes to attach around your hiking snows. 

- Hike with a good map, compass, and GPS device. Snowpack can hide the trail and trail markers, making getting lost easier.

- Use sun protection and polarised sunglasses. Snow can reflect up to 90% of UV rays.

Immediate action to take if caught in a snow-storm:

- Seek shelter as soon as possible. Try to stay dry and cover all exposed body parts.

- Look around for natural features like trees or rocks that can act as windbreaks. When in the mountains, pick a wooded area for your shelter, which will provide building materials and fuel for a fire. 

- Dig a shallow snow trench, deep enough to protect you from the wind and wide enough to allow air to circulate.

- Dig a snow cave into a drift, bank, or slope at least six feet deep.

- Contact the local emergency services. 

Rockfalls are different to landslides and involve boulders, rocks or slabs of rock falling or toppling. They are most likely to occur in mountainous or steep terrain and are typically a result of some climatic or biological event that causes a change in the forces acting on a rock, such as ice wedging, root growth, ground shaking, as well as a loss of support through erosion or chemical weathering. They are more frequent during Spring when moisture is most prevalent, causing repeated freezing and thawing, destabilising rocks that were once firmly set into the land. Rockfalls can result in a cascading effect, knocking other rocks loose as they move and fall down the mountain. Falling rocks and landslides can cause multiple traumatic injuries including lacerations, fractures, head injuries and spinal injuries.

 Mitigation of risk: 

- Keep to established paths as much as you can. Rocks are usually more compact and more stable along these sections.

- Be mindful that embankments along roadsides are particularly susceptible to rockfalls.

- When hiking in groups in rocky terrain or scree, keep close together to shorten the distance between people and dislodged falling rocks. When hiking switchbacks or cross-country, try to hike in a way that avoids being directly above/below someone else.

- Keep your eyes open for areas showing evidence of recent rockfall and hike carefully or avoid these areas. Listen and be vigilant. The sound of a rumble often accompanies a rockfall.

- In narrow areas like canyons and ravines, move through one at a time.

- In heavy rain and when the snow is melting, hikers should avoid steep slopes and exposed paths, as there is an increased risk of rockfall in these places at such times.

Immediate action to take in the event of a rockfall:

- Remain calm when spotting a rockfall and stay away from the site at a safe distance, as there is a possibility of the area of the collapse widening

- Leave the danger area as quickly as possible. 

- If you are caught in a rockfall, protect your head as best you can. Hold your backpack above your head to shield it.

- Take shelter in a rocky projection or move closer to the rock wall.

- Loudly warn other hikers of falling rocks.

- If injured, remove yourself from the danger zone before proceeding with first aid.

- Once in a safe area, contact the authorities and tell them about the rockfall so they can help anyone who may be trapped or injured.

- If seriously injured, contact emergency rescue services. 

Landslides

Unlike a rockfall, landslides are mass movements of solid and/or loose rocks and soil material. They generally occur on moderately inclined to steep banks or slopes and can be triggered by rainfall, melting snow, water level changes, groundwater changes, steam erosion, earthquakes, volcanic activity and human activity. Areas burned by forest and brush fires are also particularly susceptible to landslides. Their characteristics and velocity can vary from slower forms as soil creeps and slumps to faster debris flows and falls. The most dangerous, life-threatening and deadliest landslides are the ones that occur quickly, often with little notice. The occurrence of a landslide is not always identified in advance, and it is important to acknowledge that they are simply a risk of outdoor activity.

Mitigation of risk:

- Stay alert and watch for flowing water, which can be a precursor to a landslide.

- Check with the local hut staff, professional guides and tourist information offices to identify if they see any risk of landslides in the area.

- Study the condition of hills during and after bad weather. Be aware of cracks in the soil and sudden gushes of water pouring out.

- Avoid mountainous roads in the wet season.

- Before you hike, check the weather forecast. Landslides are most common during periods of sustained heavy rainfall. 

- Log onto any landslide maps available in the hiking region. 

- Learn about local emergency response and evacuation plans.

- Ensure you travel with a charged mobile phone.

Immediate action to take in the event of a landslide:

- If you get stuck in a landslide's path, try and escape its path and seek higher ground or an elevated position.

- If you cannot escape a landslide, curl into a ball shape and protect your head.

- Avoid river valleys and low-lying areas during times of danger.

- Watch for flooding. Floods sometimes follow landslides and debris flows because they may be started by the same conditions.

- Do not turn to any body of water as a source of shelter.

- Follow instructions and evacuation orders from local authorities

- Avoid steep slopes, cliffs and hillsides

- Stay vigilant for signs of ground movement or flooding.

- If seriously injured, contact emergency rescue services. 

Most floods happen slowly, over a period of days, and are most likely to occur in early spring when temperatures rise and snow melts. However, flash floods happen suddenly and are unpredictable, making them very dangerous. Flash floods are caused by rain falling so fast that the underlying ground cannot cope or drain it away fast enough. A mountainous terrain, in particular, creates an optimum environment for flash floods, producing rapid water runoff into rivers and overland. Their rocky terrain also does not allow as much water to infiltrate the ground, resulting in saturation, and small streams can quickly swell into fast-flowing rivers.

Mitigation of risk:

- Check the weather of your immediate area and surrounding areas. Knowing the weather can help you pack accordingly.

- During heavy rainfall, check with the hut staff, local guides, or tourist information offices for any advice on flooding risk.

- If you encounter a body of water you cannot safely cross or divert around, turn around and return to your last accommodation.

- Familiarise yourself with your route, paying attention to the elevation and topography.

- Be mindful that lower ground is more likely to become a flood zone. Examples include canyons, gullies, rivers, streams, dry riverbeds, runoff zones, ravines, and caves.

- Avoid walking through a flowing stream on foot with water above your ankles.

- Stay alert to your surroundings and listen for fast-moving water. Evacuate immediately if you notice a dry riverbed filling with water.

- Follow national park regulations and signs.

Immediate action to take in the event of a flash flood:

- Immediately get to higher ground. Factor in additional height than you may initially consider necessary.

- Avoid entering or crossing any fast-moving water.

- If caught in water, undo any straps on your backpack/daysack, and discard any equipment to avoid being pulled under. 

- Once in a safe area, contact the authorities and tell them about the flash flood so they can help anyone in its path. 

- Avoid climbing onto rocks, where you may become stranded.

- Be patient. The duration of a flash flood depends on various factors but generally lasts for a maximum of 6 hours.

- If seriously injured, stranded, or unable to escape from a flood flash contact emergency rescue services. 

Wildlife encounters can be one of the many thrills of hiking in the wilderness and will be one of the top motivations for many outdoor enthusiasts. However, knowing the principles of wildlife safety is important, as these chance encounters can occasionally be hazardous. Across our portfolio of destinations, there is a large variety of wildlife, some of which may pose a more immediate risk. It is important to research the destination and the wildlife found there to help you understand their behaviours and habitats, which will help you be better prepared for potential encounters.

Mitigation of risk:

- Maintain your distance. Being too close to wild animals generally increases their provocation, making them feel threatened and more likely to attack.

- Make your presence known. Avoid surprising wild animals by making regular noise. This could be occasionally shouting, clapping, or perhaps wearing what is commonly known as a bear bell. We provide sonic deterrents for some tours where shepherding dogs are more commonly known to stray upon your trail. 

- Stay vigilant of the presence of animals, taking note of tracks, droppings, or disturbed vegetation. Hiking with headphones is not recommended, as they limit your awareness of your surroundings.

- Wild animals are most active at dusk and dawn to avoid predators and the day's heat. Avoid hiking during these times.

- Never feed wild animals; take extra care to dispose of or store food appropriately to avoid enticing them to approach you or your location.

- Where possible, travel in groups. Fellow travellers can offer assistance, and additional protection from wild animals, and large groups are more intimidating.

- Wear over-the-ankle boots, thick hiking socks, and long loose pants.

- Carry a first aid kit tailored to the dangerous animals you are more likely to encounter, such as snakes. 

Immediate action to take if threatened or attacked by a wild animal:

- Back away slowly and avoid looking the animal in the eyes. Do not run. 

- If you are bitten by a snake, follow the appropriate field management outlined by our travel insurance partner HERE.

- To deter most animals from attacking, it is beneficial to wave your arms above your head to make yourself appear larger and make lots of noise.

- Depending on the animal and if it attacks, it may be better to submit and lie face down, covering your head with your arms and hands and playing as dead as possible. After time the animal may lose interest and walk away. For other animals, such as wolves, it is better to stay on your feet. 

- If the attack persists, and you are fighting for your life, source any hard or sharp object to strike the animal with. 

- For non-predator animals, you may be able to hide from such animals, climb trees, or reach higher ground. 

- Contact emergency rescue services if seriously injured by an animal or unable to escape from a wild animal once you have prevented an attack.